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Civil War
 
Civil War (1860-1865)

The history of the United States of America. Stories from the Civil War (1860-1865).
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The Great Commoner

March 19, 1860 - William Jennings Bryan Was Born

A great speaker and three-time presidential candidate, William Jennings Bryan was born on March 19, 1860, in Salem, Illinois. Because he felt deeply about his religion and consistently defended the ordinary American, people called him "the Great Commoner." He had an active political career during his entire life, from a young lawyer entering the House of Representatives to the seasoned prosecuting attorney at the Scopes Trial, where the issue of whether evolution should be taught in school was argued in 1925. His controversial views gained him many supporters and critics. Can you think of people today who raise such controversy?

At 36, Bryan ran for president. He delivered a speech accusing the wealthy of supporting the gold standard (the worth of paper money determined by the value of gold) at the expense of the average worker. "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold," he said. This moving speech gained him support, but not enough to win the presidency. After three unsuccessful presidential races, Bryan served as secretary of state under Woodrow Wilson. However, he resigned in 1915 as World War I approached because he opposed Wilson's foreign policies, which he believed would draw America into a war against Germany.

Bryan brought many of his religious beliefs to the Senate. He supported Prohibition, which made the buying and selling of alcohol illegal in the United States, and an amendment to the Constitution preventing schools from teaching evolution. In 1925, Bryan was involved in a trial against a Tennessee teacher, John T. Scopes, who broke the law by teaching the theory of evolution in a high school biology class. Clarence Darrow, who represented Scopes, argued against Bryan and said, "Civilization is on trial." Scopes was convicted and fined $100.
 
Saddle Up Partner!

July 14, 1860 - Novelist Owen Wister Was Born

"Whatever he did, he did with his might. The bread that he earned was earned hard, the wages that he squandered were squandered hard . . . If he gave his word, he kept it."

Who was Owen Wister talking about when he wrote those words in his 1902 novel, The Virginian? The American cowboy, of course. Owen Wister was born in Pennsylvania on July 14, 1860. The Virginian helped establish the myth of the American cowboy. However, as the image of the American cowboy became more popular in films and songs, real cowboy culture faded. What do you think the real life of a cowboy was like?

Movies and books about the Wild West often make the life of the cowboy seem more glamorous and full of adventure than it really was. In The Virginian, the climactic showdown and tender romance between a refined Eastern schoolteacher and a rough-and-tumble cowhand, made the cowboy into an American folk hero and introduced themes that became standard in American Western movies. What is your favorite part in a Western? How did people learn about the Wild West before there were movies?

Even before the Western-type of movie became popular, people were fascinated with life on the frontier. Former Indian scout and buffalo hunter Buffalo Bill Cody brought a cast of 100 cowboys and Indians, a collection of wild animals, and sharpshooter Annie Oakley to the East in 1883. Buffalo Bill's "Wild West Show" played for packed audiences into the 20th century.

If you don't live on a cattle ranch, you can see today's cowboys at a rodeo, or you can pick up a book about the old West and dream about a life of riding into the sunset on the back of your trusty horse. You might want to start with Owen Wister's tale about The Virginian.
 
The Duchess's Hobby

August 15, 1860 - Florence Kling Harding Was Born

Do you know who was the first American woman allowed to vote for her husband for president? It was none other than Florence Kling Harding, wife of Warren G. Harding, born on August 15, 1860, in Marion, Ohio. She was a strong supporter of women's suffrage (the right to vote) and was able to cast her ballot for her husband in the presidential campaign of 1920 because the 19th amendment had been ratified that summer.

Florence Kling Harding was a wife, mother, and business manager and was one of the first women to bring a professional identity to the role of first lady.

Florence Harding had an important role in her husband's career, which he readily acknowledged. "I owe allegiance to only one boss--and she sits right over there in that box. She's a mighty good one too," said Warren Harding in a campaign speech in 1910. Mrs. Harding, who was called "the Duchess" by her husband, worked tirelessly for his campaign for president.

When Mrs. Harding moved into the White House, she reopened the mansion and grounds to the public, as they had been closed during Woodrow Wilson's illness while he was president. Mrs. Harding presided over a crowded social calendar in the White House. She had many ceremonial duties, such as the one in this photo, where she is greeting the wives of the Philippine delegation who were seeking the recognition of complete independence of the islands. Mrs. Harding is in the center of the group along with Mme. Jaime C. De Veyra, who presented the Philippine women.
 
Florida Secedes!

January 10, 1861 - Florida Seceded!

Conflicts over the issue of slavery and its impact on the South's economy, in addition to other reasons, led to a split in the Union. One after another, Southern states were seceding from the United States of America. On January 10, 1861, Florida delegates who were meeting in the state capital, Tallahassee, voted to secede from the U.S. Florida became one of the six original Southern states to form the Confederate States of America; eventually, 11 states would leave the Union.

Though Florida had the smallest population of the Southern states, some 16,000 Floridians fought in the Civil War. While this was a small number when compared with other southern states, it was the highest percentage of available men of military age from any Confederate state. The state also provided resources valuable to the Confederate cause. Florida's coastline had important harbors and its products, such as sugar, pork, and salt, helped to feed the Southern soldiers.

Very little military action took place in Florida, except in a couple of coastal cities. When Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, Tallahassee was the only Southern capital held by rebel forces. What do you and your family think of when you think of Florida? The Sunshine State? Oranges? Beaches? Disney World? You might not think of Florida's Civil War history.
There's No Place Like Home!

January 29, 1861 - Kansas Entered the Union as a Free State

There's no place like home! There's no place like home! Dorothy from "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" is not the only person to express these feelings about Kansas. So would some 2.6 million Kansans living there today and many more throughout the state's history. Sometimes called the "Sunflower State," "Wheat State," "Jayhawker State," and "Midway, USA," Kansas entered the Union as the 34th state, a free state, on January 29, 1861. Why is it "free"?

Kansas entered the union as a "free state," because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act that allowed the residents to decide if their state would allow slavery. Settlers came from the North and the South with strong opinions about slavery, giving rise to "Bleeding Kansas." Acts of violence erupted due to the conflict before the majority made the territory free from slavery in 1859.

The U.S. bought the land that makes up present-day Kansas from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Native American tribes had long called the land home; the state is named after the Native Americans that the Sioux called the Konza, meaning "people of the south wind." Some Native Americans lived in Kansas against their will in the territory's early days, when tribes were relocated there by the federal government.

Those who know Kansas as home are used to its wide plains. As a matter of fact, the whole state is a fairly continuous plain. Laura Ingalls wrote about life there in Little House on the Prairie.

Who else has called the plains of Kansas home besides pioneers and cowboys? George Washington Carver, Wilt Chamberlain, Langston Hughes, William "Buffalo Bill" Cody, Amelia Earhart, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, to name a few. Dorothy has good company in the free state of Kansas!
 
Lincoln's Big Day

March 4, 1861 - Abraham Lincoln's Inauguration

Monday, March 4, 1861, was a big day for Abraham Lincoln and for America. That morning, he and outgoing President James Buchanan left the Willard Hotel, which is nearby the White House, in a horse-drawn carriage bound for the Capitol. Shortly after 1 p.m., Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Roger B. Taney administered the presidential oath of office. With the swearing of his official vows, Lincoln became the 16th president of the United States. His speech was a very important one because he would be speaking not only as the new president but also as the leader of a nation in crisis. Lincoln was well prepared. He had sought lots of help to deliver the right message in his inaugural address.

For guidance and inspiration while composing his inaugural address, Lincoln turned to historical documents. All of them were concerned with states' rights. Lincoln took office just months after seven Southern states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy opposed the new leader's policy against the expansion of slavery to new states and had exercised what they viewed as their right to secede.

Lincoln sent drafts of his speech to his closest political advisers for feedback. William H. Seward, the future secretary of state, contributed ideas to several of the final passages, including the famous conclusion, "The mystic chords of memory . . . will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."

Lincoln's inaugural address was stirring. He appealed for the preservation of the Union. To retain his support in the North without further alienating the South, he called for compromise. He promised he would not initiate force to maintain the Union or interfere with slavery in the states in which it already existed. Soon after, Lincoln received word that Fort Sumter, located in Charleston harbor, South Carolina, would have to be resupplied. The situation presented a problem, as tensions between the North and the South were very high. Resupplying the fort might inflame the situation because it was located in a slave-holding state. Yet Lincoln, in his inaugural address, had promised that the Union would not give up control of federal territory, such as Fort Sumter. The fort was resupplied, and Lincoln refused to evacuate it. The Confederates attacked the fort on April 12, 1861. The Civil War had begun, and President Lincoln was thrust into the middle of one of this country's greatest crises.
 
Horses Are Out of Work!

October 24, 1861 - The First Transcontinental Telegraph System Was Completed

This horse is looking for work. On October 24, 1861, the first transcontinental telegraph system was completed. This communication advancement would soon spell the end for the horses and their riders working for the Pony Express. The telegraph system, invented by Samuel F.B. Morse, could transmit messages rapidly from coast to coast using the electronic dots and dashes of Morse code. Previously, the Pony Express had provided the fastest delivery of a message across America. What do you know about the Pony Express?

From St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, over 2,000 miles, a continual relay of the best riders and horses traveled day and night to deliver the mail. Two hundred riders, like William "Buffalo Bill" Cody, rode at a full gallop for shifts of 75 to 100 miles, changing horses every 10 to 15 miles at relief stations along the route. Some riders had to brave vast stretches of rugged terrain, icy mountain passes, and dry, hot deserts. During the summer, the trip took 10 days; in the stormy winter, 12 to 16 days--approximately half the time needed by stagecoach. Can you think of what was outdated by the telegraph system?

The Pony Express was outdated by the telegraph system, which was outdated by the telephone system, and now we have the Internet. Ask your family what they think is the fastest form of communication today and discuss what might come next.
 
Confederate President

November 6, 1861 - Jefferson Davis Elected President of the Confederate States of America

Who was president during the Civil War? If you were from a Northern state, you answered Abraham Lincoln. If you were from a Southern state, you may have answered Jefferson Davis.

On November 6, 1861, Jefferson Davis was elected president, not of the United States of America but of the Confederate States of America. He ran unopposed and was elected to serve for a six-year term. Davis had already been serving as the temporary president for almost a year.

How do you think President Lincoln, who had earlier been elected president of the United States, reacted to the Southern election?

As a U.S. senator from Mississippi, Davis had tried to keep the Union together. When Mississippi seceded from the Union, however, Davis became a Confederate man.

After his inauguration as provisional, or temporary, president in February 1861, Davis sent a peace commission to Washington. Lincoln, committed to preserving the Union, refused to see the ambassadors from the South.

With war threatening, Lincoln sent armed ships to resupply Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Davis responded by ordering the bombing of the fort on April 12, 1861. The attack marked the beginning of the Civil War.
Lincoln Fights Slavery in the Capital

April 16, 1862 - Abolition in the District of Columbia

Looking at the U.S. now, it's shocking to imagine slavery existing throughout the country, or in the District of Columbia, the nation's capital. President Abraham Lincoln felt this all his life. On April 16, 1862, he signed an act abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, an important step in the long march toward freedom, citizenry, and equal rights for African Americans. How big was the slave trade in D.C.?

Before 1850, slave pens, slave jails, and auction blocks were a common sight in the District of Columbia. Though leaders like John Quincy Adams asked Congress to end slavery back in 1828, Congress did not act for nearly 20 years. In 1849, Lincoln, then a young Illinois congressman, first attempted to end the slave trade in the District of Columbia. But it wasn't until he became president that Lincoln could finally make it happen.

Lincoln saw slavery as morally wrong. He abolished slavery in the capital, and five months later went on to issue his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which threatened to free all slaves in states in rebellion if those states did not return to the Union by January 1, 1863. In 1866, on the fourth anniversary of the District's Proclamation of Freedom, African American citizens of Washington, D.C., staged a huge celebration. Some 5,000 people marched up Pennsylvania Avenue past 10,000 cheering spectators, rejoicing over that first step to freedom.
 
Go West, Young Farmer!

May 20, 1862 - The Homestead Act Went Into Effect

Land available! Come and get it! This poster told Americans about their opportunity to claim land and farm it, thanks to the Homestead Act. President Abraham Lincoln signed the Homestead Act on May 20, 1862, to spur Western migration. How did a person get 160 acres of one's own? You had to be a U.S. citizen and 21 years of age. By paying a filing fee of $10 and residing on your new farm in the West for at least five years, the land would be yours. A great deal, but it took 20 years to get the Act passed. Why?

Northern businessmen thought free land would lower property values and reduce the cheap labor supply. Southerners feared homesteaders would add their voices to the call to stop slavery. With the Civil War silencing the protests of the South, the Homestead Act finally passed. By 1900, homesteaders had filed 600,000 claims for 80 million acres. Most pioneers moved to the Western Plain states such as Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming. They hoped for prosperity, but knew the move was a gamble. Why?

The homesteaders knew it would be tough, farming the land for the first time, living in unfamiliar territory, often isolated from other people for long periods. Men such as Daniel Freedman, pictured here, perhaps the first homesteader, left family and community to try to win prosperity with their new land. Some settlers went with their families. They have left us stories about grasshoppers devouring entire crops of corn. They also told about their isolation, with no schools or social gatherings, as people lived too far apart.

Despite hard times, some farmers succeeded and accumulated more acres. With the railroads creating more access to the East, and a rising demand for beef, ranches prospered too. Between 1860 and 1880, the number of head of cattle in the Plains states rose from 130,000 to 4.5 million! Would you have applied for a homestead and moved west back in 1862?
 
A Final Resting Place

July 17, 1862 - National Cemeteries Were Authorized by the U.S. Government

What happens to soldiers when they die during a battle? During the Civil War, soldiers who died on the battlefields, in field hospitals, or in prison camps were buried where they fell. At the end of the war, search and recovery teams visited all the places where soldiers might have been hastily buried and dug up the remains to bring them home. It took five years to complete this process, and more than 250,000 sets of remains were recovered.

On July 17, 1862, President Lincoln signed legislation authorizing the creation of national cemeteries by the U.S. government. By 1870, 73 national cemeteries had been established, many in the southeastern United States, the site of many battles and field hospitals during the war.

"We here highly resolved that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

President Lincoln spoke these words on November 19, 1863, as he dedicated the national battlefield cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. His short speech became known as the Gettysburg Address and is one of the most often-quoted addresses in American history.

Of all the national cemeteries in the U.S., Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, is the best known. Soldiers who died in battle, other war veterans, U.S. presidents, and government leaders are all buried there. Arlington National Cemetery also includes the Tomb of the Unknowns, a tomb in honor of the people who lay unidentified on battlefields from wars fought for freedom and independence.
 
A Race for Time at Manassas

August 30, 1862 - The Second Battle of Manassas

For Major General John Pope, the Second Battle of Manassas became a race against time. On August 30, 1862, that battle ended a long campaign in northern Virginia. The events leading up to it show strategies and fierce fighting typical of the Civil War. It started when Pope's Union forces attempted to invade the Southern capital of Richmond and were defeated just miles from the city. After the defeat, Pope's scattered Union troops clashed repeatedly with Southern forces led by Major General "Stonewall" Jackson.

In the August 9 Battle of Cedar Mountain, Jackson's Confederates outnumbered the Union soldiers two-to-one. After an easy victory, Jackson led his men from the battlefield. Union reinforcements arrived, and Pope's men turned to face the troops of General Robert E. Lee along the Rappahannock River. Meanwhile, Jackson's army managed to maneuver around to Pope's rear to cut off his supply lines. The race was on for Pope to find and destroy Jackson before Lee could march his men to Jackson's aid.

On August 28, the Second Battle of Manassas began. Pope marched his men right into Jackson's waiting forces near the town of Manassas, where the Confederates had won a battle a year earlier. They fought until night fell. In the morning, Pope's Northerners broke through the Confederate defenses, which moved back. Pope hoped they had planned to retreat. Instead, General Lee had arrived with 30,000 reinforcements. The Union was forced to retreat--the battle was lost. They would have to try again later. The presence of the Union in Northern Virginia, however, had a positive effect: it gave many slaves the opportunity to escape to the North.
 
America's Most Tragic Battle

September 17, 1862 - The Battle of Antietam

At dawn, the hills of Sharpsburg, Maryland, thundered with artillery and musket fire as the Northern and Southern armies struggled for possession of the Miller farm cornfield during the Civil War. For three hours, the battle lines swept back and forth across the land. More lives would be lost on September 17, 1862, than on any other day in the nation's history.

By mid-morning, General Robert E. Lee's Confederate troops were crouched behind the high banks of a country lane. They fired upon advancing Union troops, but the Union General, George B. McClellan, held a strategic advantage--a scout had discovered a copy of the Confederate army's battle plan.

An overwhelming number of Northerners broke through the Confederates' line. Union bullets rained down the lane onto Confederate soldiers, and the former Sunken Road came to be known as Bloody Lane because of the tragic death toll suffered there.
Covered by cannon fire from General Stonewall Jackson's artillery, the Southerners retreated toward Sharpsburg, while the Union troops fell back. New Southern troops arrived in time to repel a second Union attack led by General Ambrose Burnside.

By nightfall, the Confederates occupied the town of Sharpsburg, but the battle was a Union victory. More than 23,000 men were killed, wounded, or missing in action. The next day, Lee began his retreat across the Potomac River. Lee's plan to find new recruits and supplies in Maryland, a slave-holding state that remained in the Union, had failed. The next year he would launch another assault into Union territory, which came to a head at the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania.
 
Mack Attack

December 22, 1862 - Cornelius Alexander McGillicuddy Was Born

Connie Mack was a professional baseball catcher in the 1880s, when protective equipment was nearly nonexistent. His shins were exposed and his mitt, mask, and chest protector provided little cover. At 6 feet 1 inch and 150 pounds, Mack was string-bean thin and could use all the protective gear baseball had to offer.

Connie Mack, the "Tall Tactician" of major league baseball, was born on December 22, 1862, in East Brookfield, Massachusetts. His full name was Cornelius Alexander McGillicuddy. In 1901 Mack became manager and owner of 25 percent of the baseball team called the Philadelphia Club. Do you know what new name he gave the team?

Mack renamed his team the Athletics and remained the manager and owner for 50 years. Mr. Mack, as he was respectfully referred to, was easy to spot on the bench (and in this photograph). He was the man in the business suit. He never wore a uniform and rarely went into the clubhouse, except for a pre-game meeting, a practice he began in the major leagues. His habit of directing his players on the field by waving his scorecard earned him the title "10th Man on the Field." Whatever his particular style, Connie Mack had a knack for creating a winning team.

Mack led the A's to their first pennant in 1902. He often said that pitching was 75 percent of baseball, and strong pitching was the hallmark of his winning teams. He had a reputation for turning young pitchers into stars. Between 1910 and 1914, his club won four American League pennants and three World Series.

In 1937, Mack was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. He was 87 years old when he retired from managing in 1950. Connie Mack holds the record among managers for total games, at 7,878. He also holds the all-time record for games won, at 3,776. But because he was in the game for so long, he also has the all-time record for games lost: 4,025!
 
Dying For Silver and Gold

February 24, 1863 - Arizona Became a New Territory

How far would you travel for silver and gold? After Arizona became a separate territory on February 24, 1863, New Englanders searching for gold came to Arizona and founded the town of Prescott.

When silver was discovered at Tombstone, Arizona, in 1877, nearly 7,000 people came to the territory. Four years later, the rough frontier town became the site of the famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral. By the 1880's the Arizona territory was bustling with fortune seekers from all around the world.

In 1912, no longer a lawless frontier, Arizona became a state, but precious metals and gunslingers were only a part of Arizona's heritage.

Native Americans have always maintained a strong presence in Arizona. When President Theodore Roosevelt visited Arizona in 1913, the Hopi Indians honored him with a demonstration of the ritual Hopi snake dance.

Today, fifteen distinct tribes, including Navajo, Hopi, Papago, Apache, and Pima live on seventeen reservations in the state.
 
Grant Against the Prairie Dogs

May 19, 1863 - General Ulysses S. Grant Attempted to Take Vicksburg, Mississippi

Vicksburg, Mississippi, was an important, well-protected fortress for the Confederate Army during the Civil War. On May 19, 1863, Union General Ulysses S. Grant attacked Vicksburg--a direct assault with intent to take over the city. The Union navy had already prevented other regiments from joining Confederate General C. Pemberton at Vicksburg, but the Southern city held strong that day. Grant, however, did not stop there.

Grant settled down to a six-week siege, surrounding the city, cutting off supply lines, firing upon Vicksburg continually, and moving in so close that, at some points, Union and Confederate soldiers held their lines within shouting distance. By mid-June, 80,000 Union troops camped on the Mississippi River bluffs above the city. To escape shells, Vicksburg residents left their homes for caves in the city's hills. The Union soldiers called this maze of dugouts "Prairie Dog Village." The people of the village were starving and tired but still held on to hope.

By the forty-fourth day, with no supplies coming into town, the editor of Vicksburg's Daily Citizen was reduced to printing the news on wallpaper. He wrote that General Ulysses S. Grant wished to celebrate the Fourth of July "dining in Vicksburg." Little did the writer know that on July 4, 1863, Pemberton would surrender to the Union general. Finding the newspaper, Grant's men added a paragraph declaring that Grant had indeed dined in Vicksburg and celebrated Independence Day! What else do you know about Vicksburg, Grant, or the many conflicts of the American Civil War?
 
Mountaineers Are Always Freemen

June 20, 1863 - West Virginia Admitted as the 35th State in the Union

"Mountaineers Are Always Free" is the state motto of West Virginia. The phrase reflects the history and identity of the state and indicates how West Virginia became the 35th state in the Union on June 20, 1863. The land that formed West Virginia used to be part of Virginia, but the two areas differed in both surroundings and people. Pioneering individuals, mountaineers, settled in the western portion, while a slave-holding aristocratic society developed in the eastern portion. Westerners wanted to separate from Virginia, and first tried to in 1769, but were unsuccessful.

With the outbreak of the Civil War, Virginia seceded from the Union in 1861. Very few of the residents of the western counties owned slaves, so they decided to stay with the Union. As a result, West Virginia, where "Mountaineers Are Always Free," was formed.

The Appalachian Mountains have always been an important resource in West Virginia. Beneath them is the largest supply of coal in the nation. Until the 1940s, many West Virginians worked as miners. Nowadays, the tops of West Virginia's mountains are blasted off to expose the coal inside for extraction. The mountains have also attracted different kinds of residents and travelers.

Many people have retired to West Virginia to enjoy its wealth of natural resources. The state, with its Appalachian Mountains, is the highest in elevation east of the Mississippi. Forest covers about three-fourths of the state, while farms cover many of the ridges and fertile valleys. Tourists come from all over to visit West Virginia's 33 state parks, experience its world-class white-water rafting, or encounter its unique cultural traditions in music and the arts. Many West Virginians today would still boast their motto to be true: "Mountaineers Are Always Free."
 
A Different Kind of Horsepower

July 30, 1863 - Automobile Manufacturer Henry Ford Was Born

Born on July 30, 1863, on his family's farm in Dearborn, Michigan, Henry Ford enjoyed tinkering with machines from the time he was a young boy. His work on the farm and a job in a Detroit machine shop allowed him many opportunities to tinker and experiment. By 1896, Ford had constructed his first horseless carriage, but he wanted to do even more!

I will build a car for the great multitude," Ford proclaimed. At first the automobile had been a luxury item only for the wealthy. Henry Ford wanted to create a car that ordinary people could afford, and in October 1908, he did it. The Model T sold for $850. In nineteen years of manufacture, Ford lowered the price to $260 and sold 15 million cars in the U.S. alone.

How did he make the Model T so inexpensive?

Ford invented the modern assembly line. He doubled his workers' wages and cut the workday from nine to eight hours. Ford did this to ensure quality work and allow a three-shift workday. As a result, the company was able to make Model T's twenty-four hours a day!

The automobile altered American society forever, changing where and how we lived. As more Americans owned cars, the organization of cities changed. The United States saw the growth of the suburbs and the creation of a national highway system. Americans were thrilled with the possibility of going anywhere, anytime. Ford witnessed many of these changes during his lifetime. In his later years, he spent most of his time working on Greenfield Village, a restored rural town modeled after his memories of Dearborn during his youth. Next time you are out on the road, try to imagine life without cars. Ask your family and friends how different they think the world would be.
 
A Turn-of-the-Century Woman!

September 23, 1863 - Activist Mary Church Terrell Was Born

In 1898, Mary Church Terrell wrote how African-American women "with ambition and aspiration [are] handicapped on account of their sex, but they are everywhere baffled and mocked on account of their race." She fought for equality through social and educational reform. Born on September 23, 1863, in Memphis, Tennessee, Terrell became an educator, political activist, and the first president of the National Association of Colored Women. Terrell understood the value of education.

Terrell was one of the first American women of African descent to graduate from college. She attended Oberlin College in Ohio, America's first college to admit women and among the first to admit students of all races. She earned her master's degree from Oberlin in 1888 and began her career as a teacher. After her marriage to Washington lawyer Robert Terrell, she became active in the suffrage movement, speaking out for women's right to vote, particularly on behalf of African-American women.

Terrell found that black women's groups were routinely excluded from national women's organizations during the late 19th century. They weren't even allowed to participate in the planning of the 1893 World's Fair, but they could attend. Because of this, Terrell and other black women leaders formed the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) in 1896, an organization that would support black women's groups throughout the country. She and the NACW worked to end discrimination based on gender and race. One way was through educating the public. Passionate about education, Terrell sold her speeches to raise money for a kindergarten as well.
 
The Gettysburg Address, Timeless Words

November 19, 1863 - President Lincoln Delivered the Gettysburg Address

A very famous speech starts "Four Score and seven years ago . . ." Do you know what speech it is? On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln delivered a short speech at the end of the ceremonies dedicating the battlefield cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. That speech has come to be known as the Gettysburg Address. In it, Lincoln paid tribute to the Union soldiers who sacrificed their lives for union and equality. Lincoln had no idea at the time how famous his short speech would become.

Lines of the Gettysburg Address have been quoted and referred to time and time again. They are even carved on the walls inside the Lincoln Memorial: "We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain--that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom--and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

The speaker before Lincoln, Edward Everett, was one of the most popular orators of his day. He spoke for two hours. Yet Everett admitted to Lincoln, "I wish that I could flatter myself that I had come as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes." In spite of Lincoln's disclaimer that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here," his brief speech continues to echo in the American memory. Where did you first hear a line from the Gettysburg Address?
 
The Battle Above the Clouds

November 23, 1863 - Fighting Commenced in the Battle of Chattanooga

The three-day Battle of Chattanooga is one of the most dramatic turnabouts in American military history. It began on November 23, 1863, and when the fighting stopped, Union forces had driven Confederate troops away from Chattanooga, Tennessee, into Georgia, setting the stage for Union General William T. Sherman's triumphant "March to the Sea" a year later. Sherman wreaked havoc on Southern towns and freed slaves as his troops blazed a path of destruction, burning towns between Atlanta and Savannah, Georgia.

It was a strategic victory because of the town's steamboat port and railway station. But in the early fall of 1863, rebel forces moved into the mountains and bluffs overlooking Chattanooga, trapping the Union Army.

Commanding posts at Lookout Mountain, almost 2,000 feet above the Tennessee River Valley, Confederates fired cannonballs down upon the Union troops at Chattanooga. They aimed for river and rail traffic that entered the village with supplies from Union-controlled western Tennessee. Surrounded, with no supply lines, the Union troops seemed destined to fall.

Their fate changed in mid-October with the fresh leadership of Major General George Thomas. Shortly thereafter, Major General Joseph Hooker moved into the area with 20,000 Union soldiers. Union General Ulysses S. Grant followed. He ordered Union engineers to construct a pontoon bridge west of town, giving the army access to shipments of food and ammunitions once again. When General Sherman arrived with 17,000 more men in mid-November, the Union Army was ready to fight.

On November 23, Thomas's troops overtook Confederates occupying Orchard Knob, between Chattanooga and the mountains. The next day, in what is known as the "battle above the clouds," Hooker drove his men on to victory at Lookout Mountain. Some of the bloodiest fighting took place there at Cravens House. On November 25, the last day of the battle, the Union Army crushed the Rebel line, forcing the Rebels to retreat further south into Georgia and, ultimately, to their final defeat in the Civil War.
 
Honoring America's Soldiers

May 13, 1864 - Arlington National Cemetery

How do you honor the people and events in your life that are important to you? The United States has many monuments and sacred sites to honor people, ideas, things, and events that have left their mark on American history. Arlington National Cemetery is one of those sites. Have you been there? It is located in Virginia across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C.

On May 13, 1864, a Confederate prisoner of war, who had died at a local hospital, was the first soldier buried at Arlington. The cemetery now contains the graves of soldiers from every war in which the United States has participated, including the American Revolution. What day do you think is most honored at Arlington National Cemetery?

Each year, Memorial Day is honored at Arlington by placing a wreath on the Tomb of the Unknowns. Not all of the 240,000 people buried at Arlington are soldiers. You can also find the graves of John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. The location itself is full of fascinating stories from the past.

The grounds used to be part of Arlington House, where General Robert E. Lee and his wife Mary Anna married and lived until 1861. When Lee left to take command of the Confederate troops, the Union Army turned his old home into a military headquarters and the land around it into a camp. The Arlington House has now been restored to its pre-Civil War condition and is a memorial to Robert E. Lee. You can visit it and imagine yourself traveling back in time to the 1830s. If you could build a monument or memorial, what or whom would you honor?
 
Rich in Copper and Cattle

May 26, 1864 - Lincoln Created the Montana Territory

It was a place rich in grazing land for cattle and sheep, with long valleys and high mountains, producing gold and copper. On May 26, 1864, President Lincoln signed an act making it a territory of the U.S. What is it? It's the wide-open spaces of the state of Montana, often called "Big Sky Country."

During the dark days of the Civil War, Lincoln looked away from the fighting momentarily and decided the area now known as Montana needed governing. But violent clashes were to occur in the new territory before it became the 41st state in the Union on November 8, 1889.

Numerous Native American tribes lived in the vast area of what we now call Montana: the Crow, Cheyenne, Blackfoot, Flathead, and more. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were the first white explorers to document their journey through the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, but more settlers followed. Combat between U.S. military and Native Americans defending their land became frequent. Perhaps the most famous of these battles occurred in Montana on June 25, 1876, when the Dakota (Sioux) and Cheyenne defeated General George Custer's regular army during the Battle of the Little Bighorn, also known as Custer's Last Stand.

Despite the violence, Montana settlers kept coming, drawn by gold, copper, and the chance to claim some of that rich land for themselves as homesteaders. Native Americans were forced onto reservations while pioneers poured into the territory in the 1880s. Many of our images of Western cowboys came from these early ranchers and travelers, like this shepherd in Madison County, Montana. Have you ever visited the state of Montana?
 
Saving the Big Trees

June 30, 1864 - Yosemite Land Grant Signed

What would happen if land were not preserved? People would probably develop it and build on it, right? Fortunately, President Abraham Lincoln saw to it that no one would develop Yosemite when he signed the Yosemite Land Grant on June 30, 1864.
This land grant, or piece of legislation, provided California with 39,000 acres of the Yosemite Valley and the nearby Mariposa Big Tree Grove "upon the express conditions that the premises shall be held for public use, resort, and recreation." Do you know what has happened to Yosemite since then?

Because of the Yosemite Land Grant the incredible landscape of Yosemite, with its impressive cliffs, massive trees, and breathtaking waterfalls, has been preserved and open to the public. Have you been to a national park? Was it crowded?

The problem of tourism soon overwhelmed Yosemite Valley and the Big Tree Grove as they quickly became "must see" vacation destinations. In 1890, the public wanted the park returned to the federal government and, as a result, Yosemite National Park was established. Today, Yosemite includes nearly 1,200 square miles of the central Sierra Nevada mountain range. With mountains as high as 13,000 feet above sea level, the park preserves alpine wilderness, groves of Giant Sequoias, and the Yosemite Valley's cliffs, waterfalls, wildflowers, and impressive rock formations.
 
Damn the Torpedoes!

August 23, 1864 - The Union Navy Captured Fort Morgan, Alabama

"Damn the Torpedoes! Go Ahead!" Union Admiral David Farragut shouted this famous line in a brave moment of the Civil War on his way to Fort Morgan, Alabama. On August 23, 1864, the Union navy captured the fort, breaking the Confederate dominance of the ports of the Gulf of Mexico. The Union fleet of 18 ships sailed into the channel on August 5. Boom! One of the ships hit a mine, at the time known as a "torpedo." "Torpedoes ahead!" came the warning. Did the Admiral listen?

In reply to the warning, "Torpedoes ahead!" given by the ships ahead, Farragut called out, "Damn the torpedoes!" and taking the lead with his flagship the Hartford, sailed over the double row of mines and into Mobile Bay in Alabama. The bottom of the ship even scraped the mines. But none exploded. The rest of the fleet followed Farragut's flagship into the bay, and to victory against the Confederate fleet.

During the next weeks, the Union navy strengthened its hold on Mobile Bay by destroying or capturing the Southern ships and tightening the blockade (the ships surrounded the bay to prevent passage of other ships). The surrender of Fort Morgan was an important victory for the North. The South had used the fort to ship and receive supplies. A great deal of Confederate income came from shipping cotton and produce to Europe. Ammunition and basic supplies that the South needed were shipped there. Without the Fort in Mobile Bay, those supply routes were cut off. With his brave and stubborn cry Admiral Farragut and his fleet secured that naval victory for the Union.
 
The Icy Battle of Nashville

December 16, 1864 - Battle of Nashville: Union Troops Broke Through the Confederate Line

Long before Nashville became the music capital it is today, it was the scene of a devastating Civil War battle. On the afternoon of December 16, 1864, in the heart of a cold, icy winter, Union troops, led by General George H. Thomas, crushed Confederate forces at Nashville, Tennessee. The battle had begun the day before, when Thomas initiated an attack. Finally, after two weeks of waiting, he had received the troop reinforcements and favorable weather he needed to begin. Why did the Battle of Nashville take place?

In November, Confederate General John B. Hood had led the Army of Tennessee out of Alabama toward Nashville in an effort to cut off Union General William T. Sherman's supply line. But conditions were hard: the ground was frozen, rations almost completely gone. Soldiers marching from Atlanta to Nashville described the long walk: "Our shoes were worn out and our feet were torn and bleeding . . . the snow was on the ground and there was no food." But they made the journey. Unfortunately for these weary Confederate soldiers, the Union army had arrived in Nashville first.

The Union built fortifications, gathered up troops, and planned Hood's demise. But for almost two weeks, both sides waited. Ice from freezing rain delayed the inevitable clash. As soon as the weather cleared, fighting began. Within less than 48 hours, Hood's troops were in retreat. Union troops trailed the Confederates for almost 10 days. By the time the Southerners had re-crossed the Tennessee River, the Army of Tennessee had disintegrated, as men were dying from cold or famine or taking off for shelter in different directions. This disarray ensured that the weakened Southern forces could not invade the North. A few weeks later, Hood resigned his command.
 
Want to Trade?

January 4, 1865 - New York Stock Market Opened on Wall Street

Do you trade baseball cards, videotapes or Pokemon cards? Anything becomes valuable if someone wants it badly enough. Have you heard about trading stocks and bonds on television or at home? Stocks are shares in a business that you get when you invest money in that company. Stocks are traded on the Stock Market and, on this day in 1865, the New York Stock Exchange opened its first permanent headquarters near Wall Street in New York City. What do you think makes the price of stock rise?

The more stocks you buy the bigger the piece of the company you own. If the company becomes popular, many people will invest their money, buy more stock, and the price of the stock will go up. If the company becomes unpopular, the stock price will drop.

Bonds are different from stocks. Bonds are loans, usually made to your city, state, or the federal government, that are repaid with interest at a certain date in the future. Can you guess how the trading of stocks and bonds started?

Although the official Stock Exchange opened in 1865, the trading of stocks and bonds began much earlier. The federal government started the U.S. investment market in 1790 to issue bonds (loans) that would help pay off the debt from the American Revolution against Great Britain, which America won in 1783.

Today the New York Stock Exchange is the biggest stock exchange in this country and it is located just a few doors away from this original stock exchange building.
 
The Yankees Are Coming!

February 18, 1865 - Charleston Surrendered

Soldiers are coming! Yankee soldiers! Quick, pack your bags.

Imagine that tomorrow is February 18, 1865, the day the mayor of Charleston, South Carolina, will surrender control of the city to the Union Army. The Union General William T. Sherman is on his way and you have to leave. What will you take with you? Clothes? A favorite toy? Food? The citizens of Charleston, South Carolina, had less than a day to decide what to pack. In wagons and carriages, on horseback and on foot, the people of Charleston moved sadly past war-damaged buildings on their way out of the city.

South Carolina had been deeply involved in the Civil War from the start. Like other Southern states, South Carolina believed in and defended slavery. Before the war, the state was the first to declare it no longer wanted to be part of United States of America. Then, in April 1861, Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor and the war began. It took four years for the Union to recapture the fort.

On July 10, 1863, the Union Army began an attack on the city that continued for almost two years. People lost their lives and many buildings were destroyed. When Charleston finally surrendered to the North it was a sad day for Confederates, but a happy day for those who did not like slavery and wanted the Union to stay together. How would you feel if you had lived in Charleston during the war?
 
Fayetteville Captured!

March 11, 1865 - Sherman Captured Fayetteville

On March 11, 1865, the Civil War was in its final weeks when a strong 60,000-man force, under the command of Union General William T. Sherman, marched in through the Carolinas, capturing town after town. They overcame the Confederate soldiers led by General Joseph E. Johnston. The Union Army captured and destroyed the Confederate arsenal, a building where weapons were made and stored, in Fayetteville, North Carolina.

In Fayetteville, North Carolina, and many other places, North and South, women worked to manufacture arms, ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies for the soldiers. Prior to its destruction, women in the Fayetteville arsenal made some 900,000 rounds of small arms munitions in 1864. People were grateful for the contributions of women in the war, and newspapers reported their accomplishments. Many other services and supplies were also needed for the war effort.

The women in Fayetteville formed groups like the Sick Soldier's Relief Society and the Soldier's Aid Society. In the South and in the North too, women made bandages for the wounded and knit socks to keep the soldiers' feet warm and dry. A few, Louisa May Alcott, author of Little Women, among them, volunteered to nurse the wounded. What roles did women play in other American wars? What roles should they play now?
 
Petersburg Under Attack

April 2, 1865 - Grant Attacked Petersburg, Virginia

At approximately 7 a.m. on Sunday, April 2, 1865, Ulysses S. Grant's Union army attacked Confederate lines at Petersburg, Virginia. By mid-afternoon, Confederate troops had begun to evacuate the town. This victory was important for the Union; it ensured the fall of Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, located just 25 miles north of Petersburg, which in turn led to the end of the Civil War. As in most cases with war, this victory did not occur overnight or without loss.

The siege on Petersburg had been going for nine months before Grant's army finally broke through the lines of the Confederate soldiers holding Petersburg. The South was outnumbered and had no reinforcements left. By the time the Union had placed its flag on the Petersburg courthouse, soldiers on both sides had been killed or wounded. General Grant next captured the town of Richmond. The end of the war was in sight. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9. One major task was left for Grant--to capture the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis. However, Davis had fled Richmond as soon as he learned that Petersburg had fallen to the Union.

President Jefferson Davis received word of the events in Petersburg while attending services at St. Paul's Church in Richmond. Late that night, he abandoned the capital, boarding a train for Danville, Virginia. The city burned behind him, as fires set by fleeing Confederates and looters raged out of control. Davis was eventually captured by Union soldiers, but not until a month later, on May 10, 1865. What more do you know about the Civil War? Ask your family what they know.
 
No More Bloodshed!

April 9, 1865 - Lee Surrendered

"It would be useless and therefore cruel, to provoke the further effusion of blood," said Confederate General Robert E. Lee, "and I have arranged to meet with General Grant with a view to surrender." After four years of fighting the Civil War, Lee knew it was time to put an end to the fighting. Do you know where General Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia surrendered to the Union Army?

Shortly after noon on April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, general-in-chief of all United States forces, at the home of Wilmer McClean in the village of Appomattox Court House, Virginia. The two generals met in the house you see in the picture. Today, the house at Appomattox is a replica of the original. With this meeting, the Civil War was effectively over.

In the weeks that followed, Confederate forces surrendered, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis was captured. The bloody era that began four years earlier at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, was over. General Grant and the Federal Army had finally won. It was time for the people of both the South and the North to rebuild their lives. Can you imagine what that must have been like?
 
The Tragedy at Ford's Theater

April 14, 1865 - The Assassination of President Lincoln

Shortly after 10 p.m. on April 14, 1865, actor John Wilkes Booth entered the presidential box at Ford's Theatre in Washington D.C., and fatally shot President Abraham Lincoln. As Lincoln slumped forward in his seat, Booth leapt onto the stage and escaped through the back door. A doctor in the audience rushed over to examine the paralyzed president. Lincoln was then carried across the street to Petersen's Boarding House, where he died early the next morning.

Lincoln was the first president assassinated in U.S. history. Why did Booth do it? He thought it would aid the South, which had just surrendered to Federal forces. It had nearly the opposite effect, ending Lincoln's plans for a rather generous peace. Booth did not act alone. This "wanted" poster appeared everywhere, offering a reward for the arrest of Booth and his accomplices. The conspirators were all captured, and Booth was shot while trying to escape from Union soldiers.

The whole country grieved the death of President Lincoln. As the nine-car funeral train carried President Lincoln home for burial in Springfield, Illinois, people showed up at train stations all along the way to pay their respects. What do you know about the accomplishments of Abraham Lincoln? Ask your family.
 
A President Is Captured!

May 10, 1865 - Jefferson Davis Was Captured

Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy, had been captured!

Jefferson Davis (1808-1889), president of the Confederate states (the South) during the Civil War, was captured when the Union Army caught up to him on May 10, 1865, in Irwinville, Georgia. His best general, Robert E. Lee, had surrendered on April 9 at Appomattox in Virginia to General Ulysses S. Grant, which effectively ended the Civil War. When Lee surrendered to the North, Davis and his Cabinet moved south, hoping to continue the struggle until better terms could be secured from the North.

Davis recounted his capture in his book, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. He was accused of treason and of planning the assassination of President Lincoln. Davis was taken to Fort Monroe, Virginia, where he was treated harshly. Although he was accused of high crimes, he was never brought to trial. After two years in prison, he was released and lived out the rest of his life in relative peace.

When Davis was inaugurated president of the Confederate States of America in 1861, he believed in the right of Southern states to secede and defended his belief until his death in 1889. He spent his remaining years in Biloxi, Mississippi, at the Beauvoir plantation. Davis never asked for, nor was he granted, a pardon for his actions. However, in a speech at Mississippi City, Mississippi, he said: "The past is dead; let it bury its dead, its hopes and its aspirations. Before you lies the future, a future full of golden promise, a future of expanding national glory, before which all the world shall stand amazed."
 
Parading Down Penn Avenue

May 23, 1865 - The Army of the Potomac Paraded Down Pennsylvania Avenue

If the streets in your town could talk, would they have any interesting stories to tell? You can imagine that stories of Pennsylvania Avenue, the street that connects the White House to the Capitol in Washington, D.C., would be fascinating--so much has happened there! On May 23, 1865, the Army of the Potomac celebrated the end of the Civil War by parading down Pennsylvania Avenue. Only weeks before, mourners watched Abraham Lincoln's funeral procession pass by along the same thoroughfare. Many of the buildings were still dressed in black crepe as the Infantry Unit came marching up the avenue.

Pennsylvania Avenue, America's "Main Street," was one of the earliest streets constructed in the federal city. Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson considered the avenue an important feature of the new capital city. At first, this "Grand Avenue" was just a dirt road that Jefferson had planted with rows of fast-growing poplar trees. That stretch of the avenue between the White House and the Capitol has served the country well as a ceremonial heart of the nation. What other things have happened on Pennsylvania Avenue?

Each U.S. president since Jefferson has paraded up Pennsylvania Avenue after taking the oath of office. The funeral processions of the seven presidents that died in office followed this historic route. But the avenue is not just the setting for official events. People who are not famous have paraded and protested down that road. Jacob Coxey led 500 supporters down Pennsylvania Avenue to demand federal aid for the unemployed in the 1890s. Alice Paul marched with the suffragists in 1913. And there was much more. Ask your family what parades, protests, and events they know of that were held on Pennsylvania Avenue.
 
The Hanging of Henry Wirz

November 10, 1865 - Henry Wirz, Former Commander of Confederate Prison Was Hanged

On the morning of November 10, 1865, Henry Wirz rose in his cell at the Old Capitol and wrote a last letter to his wife. The former commander of the infamous Confederate prison at Andersonville, Georgia, was to be hanged that day in Washington, D.C. When Swiss-born Wirz was arrested on May 7, 1865, at the end of the Civil War, he was the only remaining member of the Confederate staff at the prison, so in the eyes of his enemies, he represented them all.

Caught in the unfortunate position of answering for all the misery that had occurred at the Andersonville prison, Wirz stood little chance of a fair trial. A military tribunal tried him for conspiring with Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president, to "injure the health and destroy the lives of soldiers in the military service of the United States." He was convicted on all counts and sentenced to a public execution. Why such a harsh punishment? What made the Andersonville prison so horrible?

Until 1863, the Union and Confederate armies kept prisoners of war to a minimum with regular trades of prisoners. But when U.S. authorities ended prisoner exchanges, the number of Union prisoners in Richmond swelled to an unmanageable size. These exchanges ended because the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. The Andersonville prison was hastily constructed, and its facilities were completely inadequate. Nonetheless, prisoners were brought in, forced to provide their own shelter, scrounge for whatever food they could find, and drink from a contaminated water supply. Many men died of starvation and disease. Of the more than 45,000 soldiers sent to Andersonville during 1864 and 1865, approximately 13,000 died there.

Henry Wirz, led to the gallows with a black robe draped over his shoulders, paid for all these events with his own life.
 
 
 
 
 
 
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